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Viktor Frankl made the point that there are really only two races in the world, the decent people and the indecent people. In the Lager, it was almost impossible to be wholly decent. This is a story of a truly a decent man.

The image above is a staged shot taken by the Russians several days after they arrived at Auschwitz on January 27, 1945. The two little girls we see, after the nurse carrying a child, are Eva and Miriam Kor. Twins, they were part of Mengele's group of special twins. On the left is Eva Kor, a great woman, who died just a few months ago. A few days before this picture was taken, a party of 39 boys, mainly twins, had set off from the camp to walk home to Hungary. They were led by a 30 year old twin, Zvi Spiegel. 

The girls hardly knew each other but the boys formed lifetime friendships. Housed in Hut 14 in BfII, the "hospital area of the camp just down from Kanada and Krema IV and V, they lived in a different world from any other group of prisoners. In Hut 14, food had to be shared, comfort and clothes shared.Friendships were encouraged. Hut 14 was an island of community in the shark tank of the Lager. All of this was the work of one man. 

Zvi Spiegel, "Spiegel Bacsi,''or Uncle Spiegel also known as Zwillingsvater, or 'twins father' is I think one of the few who clearly deserve the label of a "decent man".  This is his story.

He and his twin sister, Magda, were deported to Auschwitz-Birkenau in May 1944 from their hometown Munkács in Sub-Carpathian Rus which was under Hungarian rule at the time. Upon arrival, when Spiegel, aged 29, heard the guards shouting Zwillinge, Zwillinge! (twins, twins), he immediately identified himself as a twin. At that very moment Mengele arrived and saw Spiegel—who had formerly been an officer in the Czechoslovakian army—standing at attention like a soldier. Mengele immediately approached him, asked him about his background and appointed him supervisor of the younger twins in the Birkenau hospital sub-camp, known as Lager BIIf—Häftlingskrankenbau.

From that point, the course of Spiegel’s life changed forever. Beginning as a minor functionary in the camp, he emerged as the guardian of a group of twin boys. His position required him to escort the twins and bring them to the designated place in which the experiments were being conducted, and there to serve as Mengele’s translator. As time went on, Spiegel took on a much more formative role in the camp. He forged the twins into a unified entity, attended to their needs, educated them, comforted them and gave them hope, and on several occasions risked his own life to save theirs. Even though he did not believe that they would live to see liberation, in order to give the twins a spark of hope he promised to take them home one day. (The History of Zvi Spiegel: The Experience of Mengele Twins and Their Protector During the Holocaust and its Aftermath  Yoav Heller PhD Candidate 2013 Department of History Royal Holloway, University of London)

This picture was taken by Allied reconnaissance in September of 1944 as the Hungarian Aktion reached its peak, killing nearly 400,000 people - about 6,000 a day. The picture shows 3 transports. Look at the top left above Krema II (Krema I was in Auschwitz main camp) and you see a plume of smoke. The ovens had a design capacity of a bit more than 1,000 in a 24 hour period. In the Hungarian Aktion, the ovens could not keep up and many bodies were burned on a huge pyre outside. The "hospital" where Spiegel's boys lived, was the area I have marked. One of these huts was Hut 14. It is just back from Kanada, where all the possessions were sorted and stored for shipment back to the Reich. To the right of Kanada are Kremas IV and V. Beyond Kanada is "The Sauna" where prisoners who were selected to work were processed.

Each block of huts is closed off with wire and gates. If you were found trying to get from one block to another you were shot. I tell you this for a reason.

Mengele had a rival, a Dr Thilo. Mengele's wife, Irene, had come to visit him and had fallen critically ill. For a while it seemed that she might die. Mengele put all his attention towards her care. This gave Thilo his chance. He went into Hut 14 in the middle of the night and set up a selection. Tying a string between two bunks, all those who were too small to pass beneath the string, he selected for gassing the next day. This included all the male dwarves of the Ovitz family who also lived in Hut 14. Spiegel could not directly confront Thilo. After all he was himself a Jew and a prisoner. Instead, he climbed out of a window and ran outside for help, calling to a guard on one of the towers. A guard whose standing orders were to shoot a prisoner on site at night. Spiegel and the guard knew each other and the guard called Mengele who came immediately. Mengele cancelled the selection and had Thilo removed from the camp. Such was Mengele's power in the hierarchy. 

Mengele's protection was real and also paradoxical. Though he was only a Captain, he had been a serving officer in the Waffen SS and had been awarded the Iron Cross First Class, equivalent to the MC. He was also the most highly qualified of all the doctors on the SS staff and had a grant from the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for his research into twins. No one thought of him as a mad scientist but as the only real researcher on staff. He had what the Germans called then, "Vitamin B", or massive support from above that not only included Professor Verschuer at KWI but also Himmler who was fascinated by this research. This and his personal charisma, meant that the senior officers left him alone and also that the NCO's and men on staff were as frightened by him as the prisoners were.

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How does it become normal to be part of the Holocaust?

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It starts with the inherent human fear and dislike of "The Other". This is not confined to White people and is common in all societies as we see in China or in the Indian subcontinent. In Europe, anti semitism is just under the surface and historic. Fear of the "Other" or "Strangers" is I think hard-wired into humans.

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The true danger begins when the state begins to play on these inherent and deep-seated fears that exist in all of us. Hitler said that he was going to make Germany Great Again. To do that blame had to placed on the Jews. In Rwanda, the state and the state media had a long campaign that branded the Tutsi as "Cockroaches" that had to be exterminated as vermin. By having a scapegoat, the Hutu elite avoided their own culpability in a failing state.

Once this story is incorporated in the system of a state, then the scapegoat is in real danger. Once the Nazis took power in 1933, they began an ever increasing state-backed onslaught that began with messaging, then with the taking away of rights and property and later with internment and later still with death. Over a decade they conditioned the German people to become willing accomplices to the Final Solution. 

These young women may have been 8-10 years old in 1933. They would have been fed the message that Jews were dangerous enemies that posed a threat to their way of life and future for at least a decade before this picture was taken. 

Victimhood is the culture of our present time. As society fails, it has to be someone's fault. Scapegoating is normal. It's the immigrants. It's old white men. It's gays. It's straight society. It's women. It's even Jews! Take your pick. Today as both the UK and the US face elections, it is normal again to talk about the "other" as being dangerous threats. Violent language towards the other has become "normal" in the political landscape. I fear that this normalization of violent language on both the left and the right is a first step in a pathway to extreme danger. 

People ask, why did not people speak out? How do you speak out against the social trends today? Don't want to vaccinate? You are a murderer. Don't agree with gender fluidity? You are a bigot. Pick your own social death. Speaking out against the mainstream view of victimhood is social suicide. In Germany, in the 1930's, it was even worse. Speak out and your neighbor will inform on you and you will go to a concentration camp. So by 1939 there was total compliance. 

The next step, is when the state itself, and not just competing ideology, takes on the role of persecutor of the "other" or the scapegoat. Now persecution becomes legal. Being the "other" or defending the "other" becomes a crime. We saw this happen once Christianity became state religion after Constantine. The religion of peace and love, that had itself been persecuted, now enforces its position with the full backing of the state. Millenia of sanctioned persecution begins. Do we not see this now with the "Woke" agenda. In many countries it is now a  crime to speak certain things? It's no longer just social suicide today. Increasingly, saying the wrong thing will mean that, at best, you lose your job or worse be fined or end up in jail.

Once the state is involved, then bureaucratic process enters the equation as it did in Germany. Even at the best of times, there is no mercy in a bureaucracy. We all have experienced how heartless a bureaucracy can be. One of the ways that they are so heartless is that one of the features of any bureaucracy is that no one is responsible. So the normal rules of human behavior no longer apply. Everyone simply follows policy and the rules.  "I was only following orders" is how all bureaucrats justify their legal actions. Hoess's memoirs are filled with his bureaucratic fears and issues. It is easy to imagine the pillow talk in the Hoess's comfy home at the Lager.

"How was your day dear?"

"Terrible. We are having problems with those new furnaces. They don't do the volume that they promised. We are falling behind on the quota and unless I can find a solution, I am going to get in trouble with Himmler."

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Hannah Arendt goes further when pointing to bureaucracy as a danger.

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With state sanction comes the issue of putting "little " people into a uniform and giving them power. Again we have all experienced this in airport security. Imagine if such people could also kill you at will and have the sanction of the state behind them? The Camps were the perfect place for these types of people. Imagine having the full power of the state behind you to persecute the people that you had learned to hate. Imagine swapping "war stories" with your colleagues over dinner in the mess about what you had done that day? Imagine, with total power, how your soul would be corroded? 

Another factor is scientific ideology. In the 1930's Eugenics was an established field of science and was especially strong in the US.

The idea of racial differences was at the foundation of science at the time. The common story about Mengele as a doctor in the KZ is that he was some kind of madman doing independent Frankenstein experiments on twins. In fact he was a research subordinate of one of the premier scientists of the time, Otmar Freiherr von Verschuer, who was director of the Institute for Genetic Biology and Racial Hygiene from 1935 to 1942 and director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute of Anthropology, Human Heredity, and Eugenics from 1942 to 1948. Mengele was working for Verschuer and constantly sent him samples and his reports. Verschuer managed to avoid being made complicit in this and continued to hold prestigious scientific appointments after the war. The Institute itself was renamed the Max Planck Institute.

Scientific orthodoxy is a powerful support to any ideology based on "science". It gives comfort to those that act upon it and makes it hard to refute by the layman. There was no scientific institute more prestigious than the KWI. In fact it was so prestigious that one of its major backers was the Rockefeller Foundation. 

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In summary, by mid 1941 and the invasion of the Soviet Union, the German people were ready to take the final step in the Final Solution. They were ready to kill.

Reinforcing this was how a bureaucracy works by taking away personal responsibility and giving the full legal force to whatever a bureaucrat does.

Reinforcing this was the wearing of a uniform in the conduct of these "duties".

Further reinforcing government dogma and permission was that the full weight of the then current scientific beliefs about race were behind this decision as well.

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Here we see members of Reserve Police Battalion 101 marching people to their death in the Soviet Union. These are among the men who shot over a million people in 1941/2. These units were filled with middle-aged policemen. Men who months before were directing traffic and dealing with minor crimes in Germany's cities. Men who returned after the war to the very same jobs. How did they do this?

First of all they were subject to all the forces that I have summarized above. But none of these forces add up to being enough to pull the trigger. 

These men were not forced into this. A tiny few refused and were sent to other units. Peer pressure was the primary force. Most of the men felt that they could not step aside from their peers. And then every time they pulled the trigger it got easier.

So my final point is this. By simply labelling all those who participated in the Holocaust as being "evil", we fail to understand how these people did these things. Yes there were truly evil people involved. Defined as people with no conscience and who enjoyed this. But most were people like you and I who had descended into evil by being manipulated by evil people.

My fear today is that many of the preconditions that enable regular people to make this descent are in place. Victimization is the core of our conversation. As a result, demonizing "The Other" is at the centre of all political life today from both left and right. The state and the supporting bureaucracy has already begun to adopt, of course for the best of reasons, much of this ideology, and so mindlessly is able and does prosecute "the other" in the name of what is best. It's all for the general good. Dissent is social suicide. To dissent is to be a traitor.

I fear that we are not far away from the conditions where taking "Aktion" to deal with the whatever you choose problem.

 Viktor Frankl, a survivor, how I hate the overuse of this word, says in his great book, Man's Search for Meaning, that "...we may learn that there are two races of men in this world, but only these two - the "race" of the decent man and the "race" of the indecent man. Both are found everywhere, they penetrate into all groups of society. No group consists entirely of decent or indecent people......Life in a concentration camp tore open the human soul and exposed its depths. Is it surprising that in those depths we again found only human qualities which in their own way were a mixture of good and evil? The rift dividing good from evil, which goes through all human beings, reaches into the lowest depths and becomes apparent even on the bottom of the abyss which is laid open by the concentration camp."

In my next post we look at a man who in all of this chose to be a force for decency and good. Surprisingly, he is a Kapo.

This image is taken from an important movie called The Grey Zone. It shows men of Sonderkommando 12 eating a feast at dinner. In late 1944, S 12 had over 800 men. Their job was to reassure, kill and process the bodies of the people on the transports. They were at the core of the system and so the heart of the moral issue of The Grey Zone. More detail on their role in a later post.

To have any chance of survival, a prisoner had to find a way to get out of the general population. They had to find a job or a role that put them on the side of their oppressors. They had to enter the superwingy下载官网 In this post I will show you the highlights of this moral landscape. 

If, on arrival, you were selected to live, you were assigned to a hut. Each hut had a Kapo, who lived in their own apartment, who had access to more clothes, heat and food and who had the power of life and death over you. The Kapo also ran the work details. Levi says "There is not a prisoner who does not remember his amazement at the time: the first threats, the first insults, the first blows came not from the SS but from "colleagues", from those mysterious personages who nevertheless wore the same striped tunic that they the new arrivals had just put on."

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The fact that Kitty Hart-Moxon's mother was with her, saved them both. Often, one would be on the verge of collapse and would be saved by the other. But even more important was mental toughness. The situation in the camp was so dire that only those who were mentally tough had any chance. We see this part of her character when Kitty awoke on her first morning at the camp. The woman next to her was cold. Her bunkmate had died in the night. Kitty, only a teenager, stripped the dead woman, took her clothes and put them on her own body. She also found a piece of bread in the woman's pocket and ate it. Surviving demanded a total focus on survival. Kitty said it was much easier to die. Levi quotes Ella Lingens-Reiner, a doctor who saved many people, who, when asked how she survived, replied, "My principle is: I come first, second and third."

No matter how tough you were, you also had to get indoor work and more food. Outside hard labour was not survivable.

You could not live more than 4 months if assigned to this. You did anything you could to get a better "job". Getting a job cleaning out the latrines was a life-saver for Kitty Hart-Moxon.

The best job of all was to work in Kanada where the job was to sort the personal effects of the dead. Here there was lots of food and clothes. We can see the results in the picture below.

But there was a catch to this job. Because workers in Kanada knew what was really going on, they could never return to the main camp. Kitty was told, on her arrival in Kanada, that the only way out was up the chimney.

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There were many "Trustee Jobs as well. These included prisoner Doctors and people with special skills that were required. Getting such jobs was often a lottery. A request might be made in a barracks. No one knew if the call for a doctor or a cobbler was just a ruse for selection. Dr Countess Martina Puzyna, was in a rock breaking gang when she contracted typhus and ended up in hospital. Mengele, on his rounds, asked her who she was. When she told him that she was a doctor, he asked where she had trained. Impressed by her answer, he made sure she recovered and added her to his staff as his anthropologist. 

This is the Grey Zone.

Survival was only possible if you chose the Grey Zone. But for many of those, their sense of shame grew year by year after their release. You could not win. You died inside the camp or you died inside later.

In my next post, I wish to explore, the moral issues that confronted the guards. For to dismiss them all as "simply" evil, is to miss the question of "Under what circumstances might you are I be that guard?" For is not that the question today as we make hatred of the "other" paramount in our daily lives?

In this second post in this series, I want to share with you a general landscape of the camp. What you will see is how it has been designed with great care to make it easy to kill up to 6,000 people a day. In this post I will focus on the physical design. In the next post, we will explore the Grey Zone, which is the cultural design or how the SS enlisted the inmates to do most of the work.

The lead picture is of a transport to the "East" from Westerbork, the main transit camp in the Netherlands from 1942/44. Westerbork is about 2 hours by car or train north east from Amsterdam. Anne Frank and her family were on the last transport to leave Westerbork. Here is the manifest that documents the Frank's transport. Note how punctilious the bureaucracy is.

Transports from Westerbork left every Tuesday. From July 1942 until September 3, 1944, the Germans deported 97,776 Jews from Westerbork: 54,930 to Auschwitz in 68 transports, 34,313 to Sobibor in 19 transports, 4,771 to the Theresienstadt ghetto in 7 transports, and 3,762 to the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp in 9 transports. Most of those deported to Auschwitz and Sobibor were killed upon arrival.

The tension on the weekends must have been extreme. If you were not on the transport, you had another week of hard but not impossible life. My protagonist, Lev Weissmann was on one of these transports to Birkenau. He left two weeks after his elderly adopted parents in the late spring of 1944 and arrived at night. 

In this scene, recreated in the the movie, Schindler's List, we see a transport arriving at night. It comes through the gates to the new internal ramp constructed by Hoess to facilitate the Hungarian "Aktion". This meant that the "cargo" could be unloaded only a short walk from the Krema's II, III and IV and the entire process could take place within an hour. Before this, prisoners were unloaded at the Juden Ramp on the main railway line about a mile from the camp. Prisoners were trucked into the camp then. 

This is a real photo of "Selection". It is Shadowsocks使用教程-月光博客:2021-7-26 · 季度最热文章 肖战227事件始末(26026) 我来帮谷歌解释下YouTube黄标事件(13442) 微软Github疑被中间人攻击(7767) 《财富》发布全球最 ... and documents a transport in 1944 from Hungary. The photos were taken at the end of May or beginning of June 1944, either by Ernst Hofmann or by Bernhard Walter, two SS men whose task was to take ID photos and fingerprints of the inmates (not of the Jews who were sent directly to the gas chambers). The photos show the arrival of Hungarian Jews from Carpatho-Ruthenia. Many of them came from the Berehovo Ghetto, which itself was a collecting point for Jews from several other small towns.

In charge is the smart looking officer in the middle talking to his sergeant. This might be Captain Doctor Mengele but no one can be sure. He certainly fits the bill in terms of Mengele's typical smart turnout. His stature at the camp might also have meant that it was he who was the centrepiece on that day. Mengele worked at Selection more than any other officer at the camp. Note how the women and children are in one line and the men in another. The rule of thumb was that mothers with small children went automatically to the Krema. The age cut off officially for children was 16. Though we know that older looking children often were sent to the right and to work in the camp. The ONLY exception for small children were if you were a twin or a dwarf and then only if Mengele was on duty.

When the Ovitz family arrived that were mainly dwarves but also regular sized people + a couple who claimed to be family members, Mengele spared them all. His interest was genetics.

The Patriarch of the family was Avram, on the far left of the picture. Avram has a leading role in this part of the book.

Lev, aged 16, passes selection. Like Livia Bitton-Jackson and Marc Berkowitz, who is also a twin, Lev is strikingly Aryan in appearance. He also looks astonishingly like the son of Mengele's sponsor. More about that in the next post. We and Mengele discover on the next day that Lev, though only 16, is also an expert diamond sorter. This skill is key to his survival.

Diamonds play a major role in how the money worked in the camps. Easy to hide, many wealthy victims secreted diamonds about their body and their clothes. Few escaped detection after selection when all the clothes and the bodies were examined. The issue that I create, that saves Lev, is that only an expert can tell the value of a stone. With thousands of diamonds coming into the camp, along with other jewels, money and gold, the SS were able to finance much of the costs of the holocaust. In our case, we learn that knowing the true value of diamonds also gave the leadership of the camp an opportunity to obtain their own financial lifeline for when the war was lost.

Lev is sent to a special hut, Hut 14 in BII f in the "hospital area, next to Kanada, for his first night. This is where Mengele housed the male twins and dwarves. In charge of this hut was one of the true heroes of the camp, Zvi Spiegel. Much more on him later. 

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Mengele's Birkenau office, in one of the brown buildings, is only feet away from where selection takes place. You can see how the ramp then leads directly to Krema's II and III. Krema I is in AI and was not a feature in the main "Aktions". In Krema II, is the office and lodgings for Dr Miklos Nyiszli. He is of course a Jew and an inmate and is Mengele's pathologist. Mengele built up quite a staff of Jewish Doctors. Nyiszli's account is my primary source for much of my assessment of Mengele. He met almost daily with him. His book also forms the basis of the film, The Grey Zone. His book and the movie offer a compelling vision of life at the core of the death process at the camp.

Hut 14 is located in the centre of the map in the "Hospital" centre and just down from the 14 huts that make up "Kanada" where the good of all the victims are sorted, stored and sent back to the Reich. This is where Lev will have his office later.

The Women's Camp is above Mengele's office to the left. 

It's a short walk from selection to Kremas II and III.

Here is a larger view of the entire Auschwitz system in mid 1944, at the peak of the Holocaust. Birkenau (AII or BII), is the main killing zone. See how Hoess has constructed a rail spur to enter the camp off the main line. The old Judenramp was a parallel siding to the main line just before the new line peels off. To the right is the old camp, (AI). This is the one in red brick with the gateway that says Arbeit Macht Frei (Work Makes you Free). The yellow box at the bottom right of AI is Kommandant Hoess' family residence. 

What separates Auschwitz from the other camps is its position in the European railway system.

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In my next post, we will explore the human process that the SS used to run this factory of death. 

This image is from a model of the "processing" of a transport at Auschwitz Birkenau. (Link here) It takes the viewer all the way from the train's arrival on the ramp, via "Selection" to the gas chambers and beyond. Here we see the first moment of truth, Selection.

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In this the next series of posts of background notes from my books, The Travellers, we discover why a character, Lev Weissmann, the finest diamond cutter in the world, has retired to atone for some unknown sin he committed in the camp. When I created Lev, in Book 3, I had no idea what might have taken place. After months of research, his story and the story of people like him, was seared into my mind and his part of the book just poured out.

Today, nearly all the survivors are dead. But there is a mass of first-hand material written and spoken about this. No one else can know what this was like but I have done my best to immerse myself in these eye witness accounts and I have put nothing in my book that someone did not see or do.

What I have been careful to do however is not to use outrage as my lens. Much of the discussion of the camps is set in the context of evil and outrage. I have instead done my best to use the lens of The Grey Zone.

The late Primo Levi, writes from his soul when he describes what he calls the "Grey Zone". In his book The Drowned and the Saved, he makes the point that we cannot separate the inmates into easy categories of the good and the bad. He instead shows us the Grey Zone. The grey zone is inhabited mostly by people who compromise and collaborate with their oppressors to varying degrees and with varying degrees of freedom of choice in exchange for preferential treatment. The stark reality is that most of those that did not make such concessions died.

Those that lived had to make sense of what they had done. Many could not and in spite of writing so much to understand, Levi himself committed suicide. 

In this series we will explore Auschwitz mainly through the experience of those that had a "privileged" existence for one reason or another. All of them inhabited this Grey Zone. Like my true life characters who survived the Great War, the burden of surviving was to cause many great suffering later.

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Everyone else in Book 4 are historic characters. These range from camp doctors like Dr Nyiszli who was Mengele's pathologist in Krema 2, to members of the Sonderkommando, to a family of dwarves, the Ovitz family, to Jews who were saved because they looked Aryan, like Marc Berkowitz and we end this part of The Travellers with in my mind the hero of the camp, a Kapo, wingy下载官网. Spiegel was in charge of the hut that contained many of the boy twins and the Ovitz family. It was Spiegel that kept the boys alive in the camp and who escorted 39 boys across the battlefields of Europe in 1945 to safety at war's end.

Many then and later have vilified these people for living. I think that we all have to ask ourselves, what would we have done? This question is the paramount one for me.

Central to our story is Dr Mengele. It is he, on the ramp, who sent more people to their deaths than any other but who paradoxically was also responsible for saving some of these people. All our characters have his "protection". This meant that while they survived, they often had very confused feelings about him.

Marc Berkowitz

Marc Berkowitz, was selected to live because he looked so Aryan. He became Mengele's orderly. On January 17, 1945, as Mengele left the camp he made a point of stopping to see Berkowitz and telling him that "You have been a good boy."

Livia Bitton Jackson had a similar story. Tall with long blonde hair, she is stopped by Mengele on the ramp and asked if she is Jewish. She says "Of course I am Jewish". Mengele turns her and her mother to the right but sends her aunt to the left. Just as she stepped off to her second chance for life, he stopped her again. "How old are you?" he asked. "I am thirteen", she replied. "Tell everyone that you are sixteen." Here she tells this story herself.

How do you live with this? She has written a number of fine books that offer us some answers. Here is where to start. She has never been able to reconcile the guilt that she feels at being given this chance of life. Here is a talk she gave at a school. Most touching of all is when she talks about her guilt at being spared. I find that she has an inner beauty that radiates from her and fills the auditorium.

Here is Mengele with his wife Irene.

We also explore the other side. Mengele is the central character in this drama that involves those that he protected. Drawing mainly on Nyiszli's account, who saw Mengele almost daily, we hear about his work in his own words. We meet Irene, his wife who comes up for a quick visit and then falls ill and stays for months. We discover the paradox of his care for certain people coupled with his sense of duty and enjoyment as he sends millions of others to their deaths.

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We also explore the bizarre world of the Hoess family who raise their children in the Kommandant's house next to the camp. Mrs Hoess insisted in remaining at the house even after, her husband got a promotion and was reposted for a while to Berlin. She found the place idyllic! The issue for me is that their life, feet away from the camp, is so normal. When we merely express outrage and label this as evil, we miss the point. 

Like then, our world today has become increasingly binary: good versus bad, Us versus Them. The Holocaust was the result of such a set of values. I think it is important for us all today, when it has become so normal again to see "The Other" everywhere,  to dig beneath these labels. 

Hannah Arendt warns us that evil appears in practice as banality. What could be more banal than Hedwig Hoess being a proud housekeeper feet away from such crimes? What could be more banal that her husband's memoirs where he rails against the bureaucratic failures of Berlin to meet his needs for more support. Or finally, what could be more banal than Mengele's burning ambition to find the secret of twins so that he might win a Nobel Prize for creating a master race?

In part 2 of this series, we will explore Lev Weissmann's own accommodation with the devil. In later posts we will look at the real people who surround him, both the inmates and Germans who inhabit the camp.

I think that it is in the Grey Zone and in the "Banality of Evil" that we can find the truth of the human condition.

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Every morning on the march, Stallos would put the boy through his paces for three hours and then the two of them would ride knee to knee. Following behind were the pack mules, the ten men of the escort and Phyllis, his nanny, who rode as well as any of the men. She too was a Thracian. At night, the boy would sit by the fire, leaning against Stallos and listening to the stories and songs of the men. He now spoke Greek better than Latin for, back at the fort, he had spent most of his time in the horse lines. Aged only four, he now rode like a centaur. 

On this, their last day, the two of them rode on ahead. Neither wished to be witnessed as they said farewell.

They stopped at the final ridge. From this point, they could see the town and the dock. The boy swung down from his pony. Stallos dismounted from his stallion.

Stallos handed Titus the reins.

"You cannot go home with only a pony, young man. You need a horse now."

The boy was stunned. Able to be the stoic Roman for only seconds, he launched himself at Stallos who caught him, lifted him into the air and held him hard against his chest. Their tears said everything. When he was calmer, Stallos put the boy down. The two of them stood before, Zeus, the pride of Ala Thracum. The noble stallion bowed his head and allowed Titus to breathe into his nostrils. The boy ran his hand up the horse's head and touched his ears. Zeus whickered in response.

Titus looked back at Stallos.

"Mine, really mine?"

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Titus stepped back and looked his friend in the eye.

"Come home safe." the boy said.

"I will."

They hugged again. Stallos boosted Titus onto the saddle. Zeus, settled easily with the tiny weight of the boy. A boy whose confidence was total and whose small legs had the command of a man. Leaning forward, Titus pulled Zeus into a rear of triumph, nudged the horse's head to the right towards the town and, with a yell of joy, galloped down the hill.

Sir Lawrence Alma-Tadema, RA, OM - The Triumph of Titus

It was about 5.30 in the morning (June 24, 79 AD). The Emperor was sitting in his chair, on the balcony at the palace in Rieti, looking out at the valley to the south. He had wanted to see the sun rise. Next to him, on his right, was an empty chair. This was where Caenis always sat. Behind him, with his hand on his father's shoulder, was Titus. Standing to his right was Stallos, his horse master. To his left, stood Epaphroditus and in the background, the doctor and the ever present scribes and household slaves.

The sky in the east was just making that shift from purple to gold and the first streaks of light glimmered on the surface of the sacred lake below.

Vespasian turned to his son and smiled. As he did, a wave of pain roiled through him.

"Get me to the commode, my boy, I don't want to make a mess as I die."

Stallos and Titus picked him up, he was as light as a child, while Epaphroditus brought the commode forward. Titus pulled his father's tunic clear and they sat the Emperor on his last throne. Vespasian groaned. His face was scrunched up with pain and then suddenly relaxed with relief as his bowels emptied for the first time in days.

With that smile, that everyone would miss so much, he joked. "I think I am becoming a god."

His head slumped forward. The doctor gave Titus a beseeching look. Titus nodded. The doctor stepped forward and felt for a pulse in the Emperor's neck. The doctor looked up at Titus and bowed his head. At the back of the room, one of the female slaves began to sob.

With tears in his eyes, Titus leaned forward and kissed his father's cheek. 

His chest heaving with emotion, Stallos kneeled before his dearest friend, the dead Emperor, and in the old Thracian way of honouring a dead chief, kissed Vespasian's feet. No one moved. No one said a word. Steadying himself, Stallos stood up, raised his arm in salute to Titus and shouted, "Hail Augustus."

So, the best prepared new Emperor succeeded his father.

Rosalie Crutchley playing Acte opposite Peter Ustinov as Nero in Quo Vadis

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"Welcome to my home, Caenis. I rejoice to see you. We both still live"

Caenis smiled, "May we both live for a long time, my dear Acte."

The two women sat down by a table in the garden at Acte's villa in Villitrae, a day away from Rome. 

"I have to ask you right away, are Epaphroditus and Phaon safe?"

"Yes, my dear, the Emperor will ask them to rejoin the administration. I also have a letter here from Titus for them. They saved his life and he will never forget his debt."

Acte began to weep.

This is a statue of the new Emperor, Nero aged 16, and his mother Agrippina. It is unique in the history of Rome. Here we see a woman sharing the status of the Emperor. In fact, in the first 2 years of his reign she ruled.

Vespasian was eating dinner with his eldest son, Titus. After the disaster in Greece, when he fell asleep during one of Nero's interminable concerts, Vespasian had been banished from court and told not to return to Rome. He had enjoyed the break from court and hoped that he would never have to return. How he loved the farm at Rieti.

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Titus gasped. Vespasian went white. 

"Well my boy, it looks as if I didn't get away with it, after all."

Titus stood up, pulled his father to his feet and kissed him.

"They probably want me dead too. Divorcing Marcia was maybe not enough?"

The two men embraced again and stood back, preparing themselves to die like Romans.

"You know what annoys me the most about this, father?" said Titus.

"What?"

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Vespasian smiled grimly.

Pictured above, lying 30 feet below the modern street, are the partial ruins of the Imperial Villa, Horti Sallustiani. This was Vespasian's favourite place to stay as Emperor when he was in Rome. Most historians remark on this, even in Roman times, as a sign of how Vespasian wanted to be seen as a "man of the people". But, by piecing together fragments of evidence, I can now see that there is more to this than propaganda. This part of Rome had always been his home and it was also where Caenis, the love of his life lived.

This map of ancient Rome, layered on modern Rome, shows approximately where Vespasian lived as Emperor and where Caenis had her house. She was 5-10 minutes walk away. They were always discrete. The Imperial Villa was also close to the Salarian Gate - look just north of the Gardens and you will see it. This is significant because the Via Salaria was the road to Rieti. Vespasian could go to his country place often without travelling through Rome and he could do so with the least amount of publicity. We know from accounts of his death there, that he had set Rieti up as the country HQ of the Empire. His staff were used to working there.

So far we are on the same page as most accounts. But as I was looking into the early years of his children, I had an aha. Suetonius says that Titus and Domitian were born in a very poor house that just happens to be down the road from the Horti Sallustiani. 

Titus - "was born on the third day before the Kalends of January, in the year memorable for the death of Gaius, in a mean house near the Septizonium1  p323 (Cannot be the one that Severus built near the Palatine as Suetonius died long before then) and in a very small dark room besides; for it still remains and is on exhibition."

Much more likely Vespasian's Domus was here where Suetonius tells us of Domitian's birth  "Domitian was born on the ninth day before the Kalends of November of the year when his father was consul elect and was about to enter on the office in the following month, in a street of the sixth region called "the Pomegranate,"¹ in a house which he afterwards converted into a temple of the Flavian family. He is said to have passed the period of his boyhood and his early youth in great poverty and infamy." -

Here are the notes on this location - Various quarters and streets of the city were designated (p339)in this way; cf. 免费ssr节点2021, Aug. v; ad Pirum, Mart. 1.117.6. Ad Malum Punicum was a street on the Quirinal hill, probably corresponding with the modern Via delle Quattro Fontane; see Platner, Topography of Rome, p485.

Look for the VI on the map above that shows the area where Domitian is born and you can see that Vespasian's old Roman house, was in the same area as later when he was Emperor. Like many of us, he was a man of habit. He liked the area and wanted to stay there. Here is the modern street - Via delle Quattro Fontane - just down the road from the Horti.

Vespasian's relative poverty was real enough. His marriage to the low status Domitilla proves that. Ironically, I think that Caenis had a lot of money after the death of her mistress, Antonia, who left her extensive property on Egypt that was looked after by the Familia Alexander.

Vespasian's poverty and lower middle class origins were politically useful assets. How could someone like him be seen as a threat to Caligula or Nero? Just as Claudius had played the gibbering idiot and so avoided being seen as a contender, Vespasian, in middle-life, played the role of the poor country yokel. This kept him off the murder roles. 

His poor origins also helped him as Emperor. Here he could play the role of man of the people. 

He made a point of not living in the Palace on the Palatine. To showcase his lowly origins, he made his old house into a museum of humility and, I bet, he kept his country Sabine accent. Titus, secure in his military achievements also played the man of the people. But, I think this rankled Domitian. Unable to share in his older brother's achievements, Domitian proved his status by building grand monuments - principally the vast palace on the Palatine that makes up most of the ruins there today. 

These humble origins came to fruition in the fateful year of 67 AD. When the Judaean Revolt broke out, who was Nero to call upon? The best General in the Empire or stodgy old Vespasian. Both men received messengers from the Praetorian Guard. In the next post, we will see why Vespasian went to Judaea and why Corbulo had to kill himself.

This is the reverse side of a gold Aureus in the reign of Vespasian. We see an idealized woman holding a wreath of victory over his head. Is this the only image that we have of Caenis? Who was she? What was the attraction between her and Vespasian? - 

"Thank you Aglaus, thank you," Vespasian embraced, Caenis's steward, "An altar fit for an empress."

"My boys and I will miss her, my lord. She was like a granny to them."

"My boy Titus feels the same," Vespasian sighed , "but sadly not my other son."

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Vespasian smiled ruefully.

The killing of Gaius, Caligula, was the first assassination of an Emperor. I have done my best to explain who might have organized this, Narcissus and Caenis on behalf of the Familia Alexander, but how was it done?

Like all Emperors after him, Caligula was very concerned about assassination and, knowing the power of the Praetorian Guard, surrounded himself with a German bodyguard loyal only to him. How could a killer get close? The answer was that it had to be someone that he trusted and that person had to find a place where the Germans could not intervene.

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The insider was Cassius Chaerea, a Tribune of the Guard. He was one of a tiny number of Romans allowed in the Emperor's personal space in public. Why he kill Caligula? Who was he and why did he have the trust of the Emperor?

The story goes that Cassius Chaerea had been offended by Caligula's constant teasing about his high voice and by giving him lewd passwords. Hardly I think grounds for the risks of killing the Emperor. I like Robert Graves's idea better. 

The sources say that Chaerea had been a veteran under Augustus. Graves suggests more. For whom do Emperors trust the most? People that they had known as children. What had been the most exciting part of Caligula's childhood? Being dressed up as a legionary and pretending to be a soldier in his father's camp. Who would have looked after him? The answer has to be a soldier. Certainly not either of his parents or his nanny. Then who was Chaerea? Graves thinks that he was this soldier guardian. This makes sense. 

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Graves goes further and suggests that Chaerea was a survivor of the Varus disaster at Teutoburg. I favour this too. For how might Germanicus choose a guardian for his boy? That man had to be special. What could be more special than a survivor of that disaster?

How Chaerea dies offers us a clue for motive. At his execution, Chaerea, asks his executioner if he can use his sword, the one that Chaerea used to kill Caligula. His executioner agrees. This suggests to me that honour is involved.  

Our best source here is Josephus - who is on the inside of the Familia Flavia - and so had the best insight. 

"Now it is reported that Chaerea bore this calamity courageously..... And as a great many men went along with them to see the sight, when Chaerea came to the place, he asked the soldier, who was to be their executioner, whether this office was what he was used to or whether this was the first time of his using his sword in that manner? and desired him to bring him that very sword, with which he himself slew Gaius. So he was happily killed at one stroke."

Chaerea's motive for killing his "boy" must have been a deep one. Deeper than being insulted. There must have been a betrayal by Caligula. Why would he go to his grave so calmly? I think that he was going home to be with his comrades who had died 32 years before.

Today we know a lot more about PTSD. My own grandfather, who spent 3 1/2 years at the front in France in the Great War, killed himself 38 years after the war ended. Many soldiers who have served in our modern wars, kill themselves today, many years after their service. Their survival guilt grows over time and so do their nightmares. Death for them is often a release. Using Chaerea's own sword would not have been a decision of only his executioner. Claudius or Narcissus would have to have agreed. 

Why then did Claudius kill Chaerea if Chaerea was part of the plot? Claudius has to kill Chaerea because an Emperor cannot condone the murder of an Emperor. Chaerea knows this and accepts that this is the price. Why? The answer can only be that for Chaerea, his life was over. All that he had left was his honour.

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"Herod Agrippa, the King of Chalcis, my lord," announced Narcissus.

Agrippa prostrated himself before the new Emperor, Claudius.

"Arise, King of Judaea and Samaria," said the Emperor. As Herod stood, Claudius beckoned the new king to his side.

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"Well my lord, pleased to be freed from prison and happy to have been of service."

Here is a reconstruction of the main gates at Maiden Castle. If you have been there, it is really impressive and you might wonder how these gates might be breached. Legio II probably made the final assault in less than an hour. No army ever has been so adept at this kind of assault. How could they have done this?

When the hill fort was first excavated by Sir Mortimer Wheeler, he was certain that there had been a major siege and battle here. 40 bodies were found and one has a ballista bolt in his spine. Do you see it? It is the first body and the bolt is labeled. Since then, there has been doubt about the siege. No more bodies have been found and there are no signs of siege works as you find say at Masada.

There are no siege works, though there must be some camps, because this was not a siege but an assault. Those in the fort were contained by their own walls. The Thracian Ala, only had to make regular patrols to keep the lid on and as this was not a siege, there was no need to close off the fort completely.

The only major work would have been to build platforms in front of the gate system for the artillery. With enough height, this could then sweep the gates and the opposing walls making it impossible for the defenders to defend directly. A cache of 20,000 sling stones, from the local beach, was found suggesting that the defenders could not use them. The supporting ballista fire made standing up a suicidal action.

Then the First Cohort of Legio II formed up in Testudo formation and took the inner rings and arrived at the gates where a covered ram could break in in minutes.

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I think Wheeler's critics assume a siege. There is no evidence of a siege.  So they assume that Maiden was not taken. But an assault is not a siege and there is evidence of an assault and its success and the mercy shown made the point that needed to be made.

Just to offer a sense of how effective the Romans were at assaults and siege work,  let's consider Masada and Alesia.

The official line in Israel is that Masada was held heroically for three years. Current research suggests that the circumvallation wall, in stone, and the camps were built in maybe a week. That the ramp, built on top of a ridge and using lumber as a binding agent took 8 weeks tops and that the entire operation might have taken 4 months from start to finish.

At Alesia, according to Caesar's Commentaries, about 18 kilometres of 4 metre high fortifications were constructed in about three weeks. This line was followed inwards by two four-and-a-half metre wide ditches, also four-and-a-half metres deep. The farthest from the fortification was filled with water from the surrounding rivers. These fortifications were supplemented with mantraps and deep holes in front of the ditches, and regularly spaced watch towers equipped with Roman artillery.

Caesar ordered the construction of a second line of fortifications, the contravallation, facing outward and encircling his army between it and the first set of walls. The second line was identical to the first in design and extended for 21 kilometres.

Even with modern earth moving equipment, these efforts would take some beating. No army could did like the Roman Army. Remember their routine at the end of every 20 mile march day would be to build an overnight camp, before they had a meal or sleep. In the field this was done in full armour after carrying 70 pounds of kit all day. 

With artillery support, assaulting Maiden's Gates was nothing to the First Cohort.

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It was just before dawn, Cogidubnus' right knee touched Teres's left, as they waited on their horses for the signal. 

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"Maybe less, prince, maybe less," Teres replied.

"And with only one cohort?"

"It's enough, and when they break-in, it will be our turn."